Tag Archive for 'health and safety'

What is Your Vitamin D ‘Number?’

A few months ago I went to the Dr. to have some blood work done. My doctor wanted a “full workup” since I was expecting my third child. About a month later, during my next appointment, the nurse told me that I was one of the first pregnant women that they had tested in a while who had normal vitamin D levels. When I asked what my level was, they told me 34.3.

Although I tested within what the general medical community would define as the “normal” range (30-70), I was disappointed. I had been going to a holistic pharmacist who had me on 5,000IUs a day. But when I found out I was expecting, I wasn’t sure how this would affect the baby and cut back to what was provided in my natal vitamin, plus an extra 1000IUs. It also didn’t make me feel any better to hear my nurse tell me that her number was 6 when tested, so that my 34.3 was “really good.” Seriously, I was concerned for her health if her vitamin D was a mere 6, and I was concerned about all of the other pregnant women walking around deficient in vitamin D.

I recently called my holistic pharmacist because I couldn’t remember what range he had suggested. He told me that recent studies have shown that a range of 50-70 is “normal,” and that 60 would be optimal for most people.

What is vitamin D?
According to the NIH, “Vitamin D is a fat-soluble vitamin that is naturally present in very few foods, added to others, and available as a dietary supplement. It is also produced endogenously when ultraviolet rays from sunlight strike the skin and trigger vitamin D synthesis.”

And as we all know, no one is getting enough sunlight these days, especially throughout the winter months.

Why does my body need vitamin D?
Vitamin D helps your body absorb calcium, which is needed for bone growth and overall bone health, and helps prevent osteoporosis in adults and rickets in children. According to the NIH, laboratory and animal studies suggest that vitamin D could help prevent colon, prostate and breast cancers. Additionally, “a growing body of research suggests that vitamin D might play some role in the prevention and treatment of type 1 and type 2 diabetes, hypertension, glucose intolerance, multiple sclerosis, and other medical conditions.” In fact, studies have shown that taking vitamin D seems to reduce women’s risk of getting Multiple Sclerosis by up to 40%!

What about my exclusively breastfed baby, who doesn’t get vitamin D from the sun or other food sources?
The NIH also states that “Prolonged exclusive breastfeeding without the AAP-recommended vitamin D supplementation is a significant cause of rickets, particularly in dark-skinned infants breastfed by mothers who are not vitamin D replete.” In other words, if you exclusively breastfeed your baby, you should discuss adding a daily vitamin D liquid vitamin to your infant’s breastmilk. We gave D Vi Sol, a vitamin D supplement, to both of our girls while they were exclusively breastfed, to prevent rickets.

So how do you find out your (or your child’s) vitamin D level, you ask?
Quite simple, really. The next time you to go to the doctor, ask for a blood test. It takes less than 5 minutes.

-Have you had your vitamin D levels checked recently?
-Are you currently taking a vitamin D supplement?

References:
Chlebowski RT, Johnson KC, Kooperberg C, Pettinger M, Wactawski-Wende J, Rohan T, Rossouw J, Lane D, O’Sullivan MJ, Yasmeen S, Hiatt RA, Shikany JM, Vitolins M, Khandekar J, Hubbell FA; Women’s Health Initiative Investigators. Calcium plus vitamin D supplementation and the risk of breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2008 Nov 19;100(22):1581-91.

Garland CF, Gorham ED, Mohr SB, et al. Vitamin D and prevention of breast cancer: pooled analysis. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2007;103:708-711.

Lappe JM, Travers-Gustafson D, Davies KM, et al. Vitamin D and calcium supplementation reduces cancer risk: results of a randomized trial. Am J Clin Nutr 2007; 85:1586-1591.

Medline Plus: Vitamin D

Fantastically Funny Friday (11/4/2011) – Why Babies Sleep With Their Arms Up

Chances are, if your child slept with a paci, you can relate to this video.  :)   How cute is this little sweetie?

Halloween Candy Overload? How You Can Help By Donating Your Child’s Candy

Are you tired of looking at all that Halloween candy?  Or have you been ‘helping’ the kids eat the candy yourself?  Looking for ways to avoid sugar-high kids and future cavities?

With Halloween over, we have two kids’ worth of candy that we normally wouldn’t allow our kids to eat, as well as leftover candy that we handed out to kids, all of which is sitting in our kitchen cabinet collecting dust.  It doesn’t help that I’m nearly 6 months pregnant and craving chocolate, and am constantly tempted to dive into the kids’ candy.

As of today, both of my kids have forgotten about their stash of candy.  I plan to keep a few pieces in case they ask, and donate the rest to one of the following outstanding organizations.

Below are a few suggestions for how you can do something good, too, by donating your children’s Halloween candy:

Operation Gratitude

Sends care packages to our troops oversees.  They are accepting Halloween candy to include in care packages, and if you scroll down to the bottom of the Operation Gratitude page, they have detailed shipping information.  If you include a check for $15, you can cover the cost for Operation Gratitude to ship the candy to the troops overseas, too.  They are also in need of letters of support for our troops, so now is the time to get out the construction paper and let the kids go to town!  Your family really can make a difference.

Operation Shoe Box

Sends care packages to our troops overseas.  If you are interested in donating your candy through Operation Shoe Box, you can mail it to:

Operation Shoebox
8360 E Highway 25
Belleview, FL 34420

Food Pantries

Local food pantries typically accept candy donations.  You can look for one in your area here.

Local Dentist Halloween Candy Buy Back Program

According to their website, this is how it works:

  • Participating dentists “buy” back kids’ Halloween candy at a scheduled event
  • “Buy” with cash, coupons, toothbrushes, creative exchanges – They can partner with local businesses to give away coupons for food, services, goods, etc.  They can give away the Hygiene Kits, they can set up an Opportunity Prize–each kid gets a ticket per pound of candy for an opportunity drawing to win special prizes, etc.
  • Dentists send the candy to Operation Gratitude or other Military support groups
  • Operation Gratitude sends the candy  to U.S. Military deployed in harm’s way

When I did a quick search for participating dentists in my area, I was able to find 13 dentists within a 15 mile radius of my house.

Lastly, nursing homes, churches, synagogues and other places of worship generally have candy drop-offs.

One tip that I had heard was to offer your kids your own exchange.  You can offer them a choice – keep the candy and eat a small amount at a time, or keep a few pieces and donate the rest to charity.  If they donate the candy to charity, they can have a ‘prize,’ like a new toy to pick out at the store, or you can always do something special with them like make some homemade goodies together (or take them somewhere memorable).

-Do you plan to donate your children’s candy?

-If so, which organization do you plan to donate your candy to?

 

Which Potato Would You Rather Eat?

If you haven’t seen this astonishing video, you must see this…

Bud Nip (chlorpropham) is a weed/bud killer, and is also sprayed on blueberries, carrots, cranberries, snap beans, garlic, onions, spinach, tomatoes, beets, and soybeans (as well as a bunch of other fruits/veggies). According to Cornell’s research website, bud nip is “moderately toxic” by ingestion. The site goes on to say that “Symptoms of poisoning in laboratory animals have included listlessness, incoordination, nose bleeds, protruding eyes, bloody tears, difficulty in breathing, prostration, inability to urinate, high fevers, and death. Autopsies of animals have shown inflammation of the stomach and intestinal lining, congestion of the brain, lungs and other organs, and degenerative changes in the kidneys and liver.”

In addition, long-term exposure to bud nip can cause adverse reproductive effects and tumors, and may even cross the placenta in pregnant women.

Workers must wear protection when dealing with bud nip, it absorbs into the food, yet it’s okay for us to eat?

I don’t know about you, but suddenly organic foods seem a lot less expensive, and worth the investment, than ever before. Who wants a dose of toxic bud nip in their potatoes?

Which potato would you rather eat?

Pediatricians Call for Change: Protect Children from Toxic Chemicals

Did you know…

  • U.S. companies manufacture and import more than 80,000 chemicals, 3,000 of them at over a million pounds per year.
  • Manufacturers of these chemicals were not required to test them for safety before going to market.
  • Only 12 out of the top 3,000 chemicals have been adequately tested for their effects on the developing brain according to a senior scientist at the NRDC.
  • Concerns about chemicals are permitted to be kept from the public under the auspices of “confidential business information”. Information declared by companies to be confidential is not allowed to be shared by the EPA.
  • In the 35 years since the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) was passed, the act has been used to regulate only 5 chemicals. Even then, it took an act of Congress, literally, to amend the TSCA to regulate 1 of those 5 (asbestos).
  • 63,000 chemicals on the market the day the TSCA was passed were assumed to be relatively safe. The EPA must demonstrate that these chemicals have a high likelihood of causing harm before it can order testing.
  • Between 1979 and 2005, the EPA used its authority to require testing on fewer than 200 chemicals in commerce.

The more I’ve researched health and safety issues, the more concerned I’ve become over the laissez-faire attitude our government has taken toward our health and safety. For years, I’d assumed the government had our backs and that I could assume that the food I consumed and the products my family and I used were safe, yet more and more I find that the government has sacrificed our health as it has bent to industry interests or that its hands are tied and unable to protect us.

As a mother, it is incredibly frustrating, infuriating even. I don’t want to have to wonder about the toy my child puts in her mouth or the food she eats. I don’t want to wonder about what I have been exposed to that may be passing to my children through my breastmilk, or worse yet through the placenta before they’ve even entered this world.

Testing of cord blood samples by the Environmental Working Group in 2005 found more than 200 chemicals on average in each child, most of which are known carcinogens or responsible for birth defects or abnormal development in animal tests.

Several recent studies have indicated that phthalate exposure in the womb disrupts normal testosterone exposure resulting in the possibility of anatomical defects such as undescended testes, impaired sperm quality, and increased risk for testicular cancer in boys. Phthalate exposure has also been linked to premature birth and early puberty in girls in other studies.

And in recent weeks, three separate studies showed that prenatal exposure to pesticides was linked to lower IQs.

Our children should not be guinea pigs.  It should not be left to the public to sound the alarm. Our nation’s pediatricians agree. Last week, the American Academy of Pediatrics issued a policy statement urging the government to change its approach to chemical safety.

Among its recommendations, the AAP wants chemicals to be tested for safety before they enter the market along with post-market surveillance for health problems. Other recommendations include:

  • Regulation of chemicals, both old and new, should be based on evidence and reasonable levels of concern rather than demonstrated negative health effects
  • Any testing of chemicals should consider the impact on pregnant women and children, including potential effects on reproduction and development
  • The EPA must have the authority and means to ban a chemical if needed
  • Companies should provide information to the public in layman’s terms for any new chemicals marketed, and companion documents should be provided with any consumer products containing the chemical

But at the core of any policy decision regarding chemical safety, the AAP wants the government to consider the consequences to children and to recognize that they are not little adults. Children are at higher risk for exposure to toxic chemicals than adults because they eat, drink, and breathe more pound for pound than adults and spend more time on the ground where they come into more contact with contaminants than adults. And the way their bodies break down these chemicals is different too.

Earlier last month, Senator Frank Lautenberg of NJ took action to reform the TCSA and introduced the Safe Chemicals Act of 2011 which addresses many of the AAP’s recommendations. Most importantly, it would require safety testing, empower the EPA, and establish a prioritization system so that the EPA can focus on those chemicals posing the most risk. Furthermore, it would establish a public database for chemical information so that we, as parents, can make informed decisions about the products we use.

Please join us in supporting this legislation. Contact your local senator and urge them to support this bill.

-Jasmine

Related Articles:
The BPA Debate: Politics and Your Health
Bottled Water vs. Tap Water: Making a Healthy, Informed Choice
Non-Stick Cookware: Friend or Foe?
Cadmium: The New Toxic Metal Threat

Changes are A-Brewing at PureBebe! Letter From the Editors…

Courtesy of Amber B McN, Flickr

Dear PureBebe readers,

First, we would like to say thank you to our loyal readers, and our new SITS readers, for stopping by last Friday. We were on cloud nine all weekend and couldn’t be more pleased with celebrating Earth Day and PureBebe’s 1 year anniversary with our favorite people on this planet – YOU!

We have been trying to keep up with the comments, but with the Easter weekend, we have fallen behind. We will reply to each and every comment left on our site, and will visit the websites of those bloggers, as well. This might take us a week or two, but we are committed to showing our reciprocal SITS love and support. :)

We also wanted to make sure that you’re aware of some of the new features that we’ve added to our site.

1) Facebook “Like”
If you haven’t “Liked” us on Facebook yet, please take one second and do that now. The “Like” button is located on the right rail of the screen. We just added this feature, and as you can see, could use some “Like” love! We’ll be posting our daily articles on this Facebook page, as well as important product and food recall information, and links to other articles that we find and want to share with you. (On a sidenote, there is a new “Like” button at the bottom of each post, and that’s for you to tell us when you really like a particular post. Clicking on this button will not sign you up for our updates on Facebook).

2) Recipes
You ask, and you shall receive. About 6 months ago, many of our readers asked us to post recipes on PureBebe. We are continually testing and adapting recipes in an effort to publish family-friendly and heart-healthy recipes. If you haven’t checked out this new tab, it’s along the top of the website. If you stop by PureBebe every week, you’ll notice that the list of recipes is growing since we publish a new recipe each week!

3) Blog Archives
One of our major annoyances with blogs in general, is the difficulty in finding articles easily and quickly once they’ve been published. Jasmine and I put our heads together and came up with the Blog Archives page, located at the top of the page, so that you can find your favorite articles by subject. This is a work-in-progress area, so if you have any suggestions for how we can improve this part of our site, our ears are wide open!

4) Links We Like
We have made some major improvements to this page, as well. We will use this tab as a list of our favorite go-to sites, as well as some of the website resources we’ve found helpful during our research.

And the fun doesn’t end here. We have quite a few other enhancements coming, so stay tuned! In the meantime, we hope that these changes to our site make your reading experience that much more pleasurable. And, as always, we are wide open to your comments and suggestions. We wouldn’t be much of a site without you.

We wish you and your family many, many days of healthy and “pure” living ahead,

-Heather and Jasmine

Miracle at Birth: Mom’s Final Goodbye Brings Life to her Child

Image courtesy growingyourbaby.com

Australian mother, Kate Ogg, was handed her lifeless son, who was born at just 27 weeks, after doctors had tried for 20 minutes to revive him. She and her husband were asked if they had chosen a name for their son, and when she said “Jamie”, the doctor turned around with her baby boy wrapped in a blanket and gave her the most heartbreaking news any mother could hear, “We’ve lost Jamie. He didn’t make it. Sorry.”

Kate then unwrapped Jamie from his blanket and held him against her skin. For the next two hours, she and her husband cuddled him tightly and told him how much they loved him and of all the things they wanted to do with him throughout his life. Occasionally, he gasped for air which the doctors had warned her would be a reflex action, but she wasn’t so certain. After only a few minutes, he had startled, then started gasping more regularly. This went on for two hours when Kate, in a last ditch effort, gave Jamie a little bit of breastmilk on her finger. To her amazement, he took it and started regular breathing. The doctor came back in, took his stethoscope to Jamie’s chest, and said “I don’t believe it. I don’t believe it.” Jamie was alive!

Kate’s experience brought tears to my eyes as I imagined the agony of a mother holding her lifeless child for what she thought were his final moments and then the joy she must have felt when she felt the life in him. Her story was such a testament to me of the miracle of a mother’s touch. Before her story, I’d only been introduced to skin-to-skin contact as an impetus to breastfeeding and had used it on occasion to soothe my crying babies. Never had I imagined that it could have a life-saving effect on a child.

Only time will tell, but Jamie is now a healthy 5 month old, and his mother is speaking publicly for the first time about her experience to highlight the importance of skin-to-skin contact, also known as kangaroo care, for pre-term infants. You can hear her amazing story in the interview below.

Kangaroo care is the practice of skin-to-skin contact similar to the way a kangaroo would carry her young, hence the name. Baby is placed in an upright position on a mother’s bare chest between her breasts allowing tummy to tummy contact. The baby’s head is turned so that the ear is above the parent’s heart, and the baby is naked except for a diaper with a blanket covering his or her back.

This skin-to-skin contact between mother and child has remarkable effects on baby, whether pre-term or full-term. Studies have shown that the warmth of the mother’s body and the soothing sounds of her heartbeat can reduce anxiety and crying; help to regulate heart rate, breathing and temperature; induce longer periods of sleep and alertness; reduce reaction to pain (observed in studies of reaction to the heel prick); stimulate more rapid weight gain and brain development; and enhance bonding between mother and child. New dads can also experience enhanced bonding through kangaroo care. Skin-to-skin contact is also associated with more successful breastfeeding as it may help promote further milk production.

How does it work? Studies have shown that mothers have thermal synchrony with their baby. When the baby was cold, the mother’s body temperature would increase to warm the baby up, and when the baby was too warm, the mother’s body would absorb excess heat to prevent overheating.  Babies who are kangarooed also fall asleep more quickly and more deeply. Both of these traits allow babies to conserve energy and put it towards growth and development. Researchers have also studied brain wave patterns of infants in kangaroo care and found an increase in the brain wave pattern associated with contentment and bliss as well as increased activity in development of neural synapses.

Mothers who wish to practice skin-to-skin contact should consider the following tips:

  • Discuss it with your care provider prior to birth to request immediate skin-to-skin contact unless there are complications that prevent you from doing so.
  • If your baby is doing well, ask the staff to delay their evaluation or perform it while you hold your baby. Many of the procedures can be done while the baby is on your chest.
  • If your child is in the NICU, ask the staff about the hospital’s policy. Not all hospitals support kangaroo care, and there are differing opinions amongst those who do as to when babies are able to do so. Many hospitals will allow kangaroo care as soon as the baby is stable enough to come out of the incubator while others will allow it from birth.

Please leave us a Comment and let us know your thoughts!

If you enjoy reading PureBebe, please click on “Sign me up!” under “Email Subscription” on the right rail of the screen. By subscribing to our emails, you are telling us that you digg our site and want to read more of our baby news and topics!

-Jasmine

Protecting Your Children’s Delicate Skin from the Sun

Reading Heather’s post on Tuesday regarding sunscreen and Vitamin A additives, I was surprised to learn that a few serious sunburns can increase a child’s risk of skin cancer later in life. In fact, I did a little research and found that just one blistering sunburn in childhood or adolescence will more than double the chances of developing melanoma later in life. The same is true for a person who has had 5 or more sunburns at any age.

Melanoma is a less common form of skin cancer but also the most serious. While episodes like those above are linked to the development of melanoma, cumulative sunlight exposure is linked to the development of the much more common nonmelanoma skin cancers.

I’m sure after hearing the statistics above, you (like me) are now thinking back and recalling bad sunburns or stupid things you’ve done in the quest for a beautiful tan. Personally, I recall literally baking for days in Hawaii without a drop of sunscreen in an attempt to see how dark my Native American skin could get.

Now, I’m a little older and a little wiser…and a parent. My children inherited my husband’s fairer complexion, so I take much more precaution when exposing them to the sun. I get particularly concerned during the first six months when sunscreen is off-limits. The AAP has historically recommended that sunscreen not be applied on infants under 6 months of age. The Australian Cancer Society has come out, though, and said that there is no evidence to suggest that sunscreen on small areas of a baby’s skin has any long-term effects, so the AAP now recommends that when you’re not able to fully protect an infant’s skin with clothing, sunscreen on areas such as the face, neck, and back of the hands is reasonable. Just make sure you select a sunscreen void of Vitamin A, as Heather suggested earlier this week.

Here are some additional tips for choosing a child-friendly sunscreen from the Child Health Advocacy Institute, cited at WebMD:

(1) Choose a sunscreen that contains zinc oxide or titanium dioxide, because the compounds are less irritating than others and do not get absorbed into the skin.
(2) Choose a sunscreen with SPF 30 or higher.
(3) Make sure it’s labeled “broad spectrum,” which means it blocks both UVA and UVB rays. UVA causes sunburn, while UVB is the main cause of wrinkles.
(4) Sunscreen sticks are best for the face because they are sweat proof and less likely to drip.

Always put sunscreen on your child before going outside. In the same article at WebMD, the author suggests the acronym BEENS to help you remember to cover often-forgotten spots: Back of knees, Ears, Eye area, Neck, and Scalp.

In addition to applying sunscreen, consider these tips for sun safety:

(1) Minimize exposure between 10 am and 4 pm when the sun’s rays are strongest. Take advantage of shade when possible, especially when your shadow is shorter than you are tall. Keep in mind that the sun is reflected off of many surfaces including sand, cement, water, and snow.

(2) Cover up. Dress in lightweight clothing that covers the body. Avoid sundresses and tank tops that leave the back and shoulders exposed, areas which receive a lot of sun when kids are playing. Bright or dark-colored clothes that have a tighter weave offer the best protection. You can also buy clothing that is specially treated with chemicals to protect against ultraviolet light or wash your clothes in SunGuard, a laundry additive recommended by the Skin Cancer Foundation that contains a sunscreen. When added to the wash, it gives clothing a UPF of 30 and supposedly lasts for about 20 washings.

(3) Wear a hat and sunglasses. Choose a wide-brimmed hat that shields the face and sunglasses that filter both UVA and UVB rays. UV radiation has been linked to cataracts later in life.

(4) Set an example for your children by practicing sun protection yourself.

Related Posts:
Is Your Sunscreen ‘Safe’? Vitamin A Added to Sunscreens May Do More Harm Than Good
Don’t Get Burned by Unsafe Sunscreens

Is Your Sunscreen ‘Safe’? Vitamin A Added to Sunscreens May Do More Harm Than Good

Courtesy of Boudewijn Berends, Flickr

Have you ever bought or used a vitamin A retinoid night cream that comes with a warning label like “Consumers should avoid exposure to sunlight or artificial ultraviolet sources after applying this product”? Well, I have. And what I’ve learned is that surprisingly, vitamin A, also known as retinyl palmitate (or “retinoids”) is added to 41% of all sunscreens today. According to the Environmental Working Group (EWG), this includes some of my favorite brands of sunscreen – Aveeno and Neutrogena products!

Why is that important, you ask?

Earlier this Summer, the EWG published an analysis of new data that indicates that vitamin A, when applied to skin exposed to sunlight, “may speed the development of skin tumors and lesions.” And, the “EWG considered this evidence troubling because the sunscreen industry adds vitamin A to 41% of all sunscreens.”

Even more troubling is the fact that skin cancer is the most common form of cancer in the United States, accounting for nearly half of all cancers. According to the National Cancer Institute more than 1 million people in the United States will be diagnosed in 2010 with skin cancer; and 1,000 people will die of skin cancer this year.

And as far as our babies are concerned, did you know that just a few serious sunburns at a young age can increase your child’s risk of skin cancer later in life?

Well, if night creams warn users to avoid sunlight while using their products laden with vitamin A, why are they added to products that are supposed to protect us and our babies from the sun’s rays?

So what can you do, you ask?

The EWG recommends that you “select from among the nearly 60 percent of sunscreens that are free of the compound until more conclusive information is available.” For a list of the EWG’s Best Beach and Sport Sunscreens, click here.

-Heather

Additional References:
EWG Stands By Its Vitamin A Sunscreen Warning
Skin Cancer Facts

Hidden Danger in the Sandbox

When one of my colleagues found out about my blog, he immediately asked me to write an article about sand. Sand, I thought – really? What on earth could I write about sand? He went on to explain that he and his wife were in the process of buying sand for their son’s sandbox when a friend alerted them to the hidden dangers of store bought sand.

As it turns out, I discovered that many types of play sand sold in traditional hardware stores indeed pose a health risk to young children. This sand is not natural sand, but derived from quarried quartz rock. And quartz, (aka crystalline silica), is a known carcinogen.

According to the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), exposure to crystalline silica can cause lung disease, lung cancer, tuberculosis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder, immunologic disorders and autoimmune diseases, renal disease, stomach and other cancers.

Although the OSHA site focuses on “prolonged” exposure to the substance, most doctors would agree that children’s developing lungs are more susceptible to environmental factors such as carcinogens.

How can sand made with crystalline silica make my child sick?

When children play with sand with their hands, tools, etc., they can create sand dust (think of shovel lifting sand in the air and “pouring” sand into a bucket), which the children can inhale.

So if you’re in the market for sand, the following companies boast 100% natural, non-toxic, safe sand. You might have to start charging admission for your child’s sandbox (or skip a few dinners out), but at least you know that your child is not playing in carcinogenic dust:

The Safe Sand Company
$75.00 for 50 pounds

Child Therapy Toys
$35.95 for 25 pounds

Alternatives to sand:
Dust-free, washed and sterilized pea gravel is a good alternative. Pea gravel is small, smooth rocks that you can buy at your local garden store for $10 (or under) for a 50 pound bag. Although your son won’t be able to create sand sculptures, he’ll be able to move these rocks around with his play dump trucks.




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